英美电影发展史英文

⑴ 求一篇电影发展史的作文，大学的，150字左右，要英文的急求！

The history of film spans over 100 years, from the latter part of the 19th century to the present day. Motion pictures developed graally from a carnival novelty to one of the most important tools of communication and entertainment, and mass media in the 20th century and into the 21st century. Most films before 1930 were silent. Motion picture films have substantially affected the arts, technology, and politics.
The cinema was invented ring the 1890s, ring what is now called the instrial revolution. It was considered a cheaper, simpler way to provide entertainment to the masses. Movies would become the most popular visual art form of the late Victorian age. It was simpler because of the fact that before the cinema people would have to travel long distances to see major dioramas or amusement parks. With the advent of the cinema this changed. During the first decade of the cinema's existence, inventors worked to improve the machines for making and showing films. The cinema is a complicated medium, and before it could be invented, several technological requirements had to be met

⑵ 用英文介绍电影由有声到无声发展的过程

从默片到有声电影
所谓的默片在其鼎盛时代也常常有音乐或者声效相伴，1926年8月，由约翰.巴利摩尔主演的《唐璜》在纽约的华纳剧院首映，这次首映采用了Vitaphone声音系统，以每秒331/3转唱片来使电影声画同步。新的发明很快就跟来了，1927年10月华纳公司的《爵士歌王》敲响了默片的丧钟。 到1930年为止，只有5%的好莱坞的影片还是默片，华纳兄弟采用了更方便的由Western Electric开发的胶片携载声音的技术，这一技术需要采用每秒24格的放映速度，从而诞生了这一今天仍然采用的标准。这一变化彻底改变了电影胶片的形态。
35mm默片的满画面大致是正方形的，比例是1.33:1 (或4:3，象电视画面)，1927年最早的声音印在胶片上时是1.21:1
1932年，制片商和放映商联合建立了胶片上声音轨迹宽度的标准，从而创造了新的1.37:1比例。随着这一整个业界技术方针的确立，电影中的对白、歌舞急剧增加.在30年代，电影观众增加了一倍。 电影工业继续寻找新的发展，很快，就开始经历彩色电影，开始了一个新的时代。

From silent to sound moviesThe so-called silent in its heyday there is often accompanied by music or sound effects, in 1926 August, by John Barrymore." Don Juan" starring Warner theater premiere in New York, the premiere of the Vitaphone sound system, with every second 331 / 3 rpm records to make the film synchronized sound. The new invention was soon to come, in 1927 October Warner's" the jazz singer" sounded the death knell of the silent. Until 1930, only 5% of the Hollywood videos or films, Warner Brothers used the more convenient by Western Electric development of the film carrying voice technology, this technology requires the use of the projection speed at 24 frames per second, resulting in the birth of this remains today the standard. This change has revolutionized the film morphology.35mm silent movie full screen is roughly square, the proportion is 1.33 : 1 ( or 4: 3, like a television ), 1927 the earliest sound on film is 1.21: 1In 1932, procers and exhibitors to jointly establish a film sound track width standard, thus creating a new 1.37 : 1 scale. With this throughout the technology instry policy establishment, movies, dance has increased dramatically. In the 30's, movie goers doubled. The film instry continue to seek new development, quickly, began to experience a color film, the start of a new era.

英文是自己用网络翻译的，可能有很多语法错误。希望对楼主有帮助1

⑶ 英文影片的英文简介

1、《英国病人》

Directed by Anthony mingra, the English patient is adapted from the novel of the same name by Michael ondaj.

The film is co starred by Ralph Fiennes, Christine Scott Thomas and Juliet Binoche. The film was released in the United States on November 6, 1996.

The movie takes the war and desert as the background, decing a love tragedy across time and space.

During World War II, a British plane was shot down by the German army while flying over the Sahara desert.

The pilot on the plane was completely burned on the face. The local people rescued him and sent him to the Allied field hospital.

Because of the injury, the pilot lost his memory and could not remember who he was, so he could only be called "English Patient".

《英国病人》由安东尼·明格拉执导，是根据作家迈克尔·翁达杰的同名小说改编而成。

该片由拉尔夫·费因斯、克里斯汀·斯科特·托马斯、朱丽叶·比诺什等联袂主演。影片于1996年11月6日在美国上映 。

电影以战争和沙漠为背景，演绎一场跨越时空的爱情悲剧。

二战期间，一架英国飞机在飞越撒哈拉沙漠时被德军击落，飞机上的机师面部被全部烧伤，当地人将他救活后送往了盟军战地医院。

由于受伤这个机师丧失了记忆，不能想起自己是谁，因此只能被叫做“英国病人”。

影片讲述由莱昂纳多·迪卡普里奥扮演的造梦师，带领约瑟夫·高登-莱维特、艾伦·佩吉扮演的特工团队，进入他人梦境，从他人的潜意识中盗取机密，并重塑他人梦境的故事。

⑷ 英文电影发展史

这个也太有难度了吧，非得专业人士不行啊，建议你还是直接娶你老师那边索要得了，呵呵，大不了请吃顿饭完事！

⑸ 急~求美国动画发展历史英文介绍，最好有图片！！

Cartload : You are American, the U.S. and Asia Animation exchange of Principal Adviser to the United States in the development of track position is very well, Can you talk about the United States is how track instries from small to large and from weak to strong, ZTE access road? Zhang Xiaoji Security : The United States is a very attention to the protection of their cultural country. For example, the Christian culture is the backbone of an umbrella, other cultures around the trunk, the same as the umbrella bone unfolded. No matter how doing something unorthodox, it is inseparable from the mainstream culture. American culture is in the hands of the Americans, especially treasure of American culture, all pay attention to the protection of cultural, This can metaphor : the United States used the metaphor of a culture vessel, the American people are on board sailors, struggling in the water not dropped my boat. This is the first point. The second point that Americans have to track the spending habits of procts, so they have two characteristics : one is a universal consumption, Whether you are a child or young alts, and even the elderly, have different levels of animation consumption, for example, an elderly birthday, the movie received a lot of cards, the elderly are very pleased, and some of his relatives no matter what age, what good thing to encounter, such as birthday, wedding With what, He sent some gifts at the same time, yeah, right, and such gifts may be derived from the animation. He is also to release this gift cards to send out animation, which is a characteristic. Another feature of life animation consumption. Especially from the 0 to 12 age group, in the United States, statistical, in this age of the crowd, They average 71 toys, and some have more. I can cite an example, a young girl, especially hyperactive and not concentrate on learning. Mother leading her to see psychological doctors, psychologists say, can you draw me to your house to see, child psychologists came to the room, only one, shut the door, told her mother, Please put your child's toys to less 5%. According to the mother the doctors made, and the children are learning a lot really good. There's a reason children are toys much of the excess (approximately 400), comes to an end with this, um, how she can concentrate on their studies? This is a characteristic. The second characteristic is that in the United States, animation extension almost infiltrate into the corner of each, for example, sell drugs, Not only sell drugs, also sell small articles of daily use, these small articles of daily use, there is a considerable amount of animation procts, such as sick children. If you give him medicine at the same time, he could also proposed charges as just such as Mickey Mouse shirt. For instance, the stores sell glasses, glasses on the shelves, glasses are linked in some cartoon characters face, Reren cartoon characters are popular, and people passing through will not help more enjoyable, looking at the same time, they saw the glasses. In addition, spectacles store also placed many cartoon toys, glasses you bought at the same time, perhaps bought a playmate. In short, in the United States and merchants to provide consumers with all the consumer convenience, sometimes, you do not think of businessmen have you thought of everything. For instance, the cards seem very cheap, sometimes only 1,2 U.S. dollars, as your wife for a friend or a gift on the card write a few words, I will feel very warm, between classmates send a small gift as a gift card. According to what is said, the United States annual card sales volume reached 3 billion each year Americans spend almost 10 dollars, Therefore, the Americans animation consumption habits from the fundamental guarantee for the development track, it is a problem. Another key issue is, the United States domestic proction of animation Its basic principle is : the lower the better proction costs. and the greater efficiency is the better course. For example, when the company had the theme track design and screenplay, it may local proction in the United States, The United States may not have local proction, in Asia it can use half the cost of proction completed, he will never in their proction. Therefore, their procts are completely animation market, according to the laws of the market economy. Meanwhile, they paid great attention to protecting its cultural track, while minimizing foreign, such as Europe, Japan's invasion, I said yes to less than one is not allowed to import, but the introction of the quantity is very small. In short, they make full use of their proction animation procts. This is like one with its own seed, its own fertilizer, to hire cheap labor for them. He is the last of the harvest, said that the United States is an animated cartoon instry as a major power, it is not a coincidence. and I of the above mentioned enjoyed a close relationship, the problem is sporadic, I will discuss here. Zhang Xiao An Introction : USA, the U.S. and Asia Animation exchange organizations Principal Consultant. 1982 graated from the Beijing Film Academy (animation professional, college), in Beijing Branch shadow, Chinese television proction center, and the Central Television unit. He is the first Chinese animation instry in the television cartoon creation one of the young directors. A distinctive style, with a rich culture of color. USA, the United States and Asia as cartoon bodies Principal Adviser, perform for the Chinese animation instry to provide professional consulting services and the promotion of Sino-U.S. cooperation animation project. His cartoon "I lost," was the first in 1989 China Television Animation Honor Award; animated short film "Jiapanweidi" is the 1994 National cartoon humor pieces sweetheart Award; Karaoke animation "Grandpa Deng meters of trees" in 1998 was China's first television program karaoke outstanding design award OK OK .
这可是我自己翻译的！！！！！

⑹ 帮忙找电影发展史的英语版本，万分感谢

History of Motion Pictures
I INTRODUCTION

History of Motion Pictures, historical development of the visual medium known as motion pictures, film, cinema, or the movies. This article covers the medium’s history as a technology, as a business, as an art form, and as a means of delivering entertainment and information to audiences in theaters and at home. It discusses major filmmakers and their films, principal fiction and nonfiction genres, and film instries in the United States and throughout the world. For more information on the technical aspects involved in creating a film, see Motion Picture.

II ORIGINS

In the early 19th century scientists took note of a visual phenomenon: A sequence of indivial still pictures, when set in motion, can give the illusion of movement. These scientists attributed this experience to what they called persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. The eye’s retention of a visual image, now known as positive afterimage, has long been considered a founding principle of motion pictures, even though its relationship to the perception of motion is still not well understood.

A Early Experiments

The persistence of vision concept stimulated experimentation with motion-picture devices throughout the 19th century. Among the first such devices was a slotted disk with a sequence of drawings around its perimeter. When a person spun the disk in front of a mirror and looked through the slots, the drawings appeared to move. The zoetrope, a device developed in the 1830s, was a hollow drum with a strip of pictures around its inner surface. When spun, it proced the same effect. In the 1870s French inventor Émile Reynaud improved on this idea by placing mirrors at the center of the drum. A few years later he developed a projecting version, using a reflector and a lens to enlarge the moving images. In 1892 he began holding public screenings in Paris at his Théâtre Optique, with hundreds of drawings on a reel that he wound through his apparatus to construct moving images that continued for 15 minutes.

Inventors began to conceive of combining the principles of these moving-image devices with the photographic recording of actual movement soon after the development of still photography in the 1830s. The most famous experiment occurred in the 1870s in California, where railroad tycoon Leland Stanford hired British photographer Eadweard Muybridge to settle a bet on whether a galloping horse ever had all four feet off the ground. Muybridge set up 12 cameras along a racetrack and spread threads across the track with a contact to each camera’s shutter. Moving along the track, the horse broke the threads and caused a sequence of photographs to be taken. The photos showed the horse with all four feet off the ground, and Muybridge went on a lecture tour showing his photographs on a moving-image device he called the zoopraxiscope.

Muybridge’s endeavors stimulated French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey to devise equipment for recording and analyzing animal and human movement. He built what he called a chronophotographic camera that could take multiple images superimposed on one another. His work was aided in turn by developments in photographic materials. In 1885 American inventor George Eastman introced sensitized paper roll “film” in place of the indivial glass plates then in use. In 1889 Eastman replaced the paper roll with celluloid, a synthetic plastic material coated with a gelatin emulsion.

B Thomas Alva Edison and William K. L. Dickson

Legendary American inventor Thomas Alva Edison drew upon the work of Muybridge, Marey, and Eastman when he turned his attention to motion pictures in the late 1880s. In his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, Edison assigned to a British employee, William K. L. Dickson, the task of constructing a machine for recording actual movement on film and another machine for viewing the resulting images. By 1891 Dickson had proced a motion-picture camera, called the Kinetograph, and a viewing machine, bbed the Kinetoscope.

The Kinetograph was operated by an electric motor that moved the celluloid film roll past the camera lens. Motor-driven cameras, which were bulky and stationary, were soon replaced by movable hand-cranked cameras. Dickson’s key contribution was a sprocket mechanism linked to the camera’s shutter, which momentarily stopped the film roll for each exposure. These separate still photographic images came to be called frames. Early cameras used a number of different speeds for exposing frames, but by the advent of sound film in the late 1920s the standard had become 24 frames per second.

In early 1893 Edison constructed a motion-picture studio on his laboratory grounds, bbed the Black Maria by his staff who thought it resembled police patrol wagons known by that nickname. On May 9, 1893, he held the first public exhibition of films shot using the Kinetograph in the Black Maria. But only one person at a time could use his viewing machine, the Kinetoscope. This boxlike structure contained a motor-and-shutter mechanism similar to the camera’s. It ran a loop of positive film past an electric light source, illuminating a tiny image, which the viewer observed through a small window. Kinetoscope viewing parlors containing many machines for indivial viewing began to open in cities in 1894. Edison and Dickson apparently gave little thought to a single machine that could project moving images to a large audience, something Reynaud had achieved in his Théâtre Optique. Reynaud, however, had displayed drawings rather than images photographed by a motion-picture camera.

C The Lumière Brothers

In France, the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who ran a factory in Lyons that manufactured photographic equipment, sought to improve on Edison’s accomplishment. By 1895 they developed a lightweight, hand-held camera that used a claw mechanism to advance the film roll. They named it the Cinématographe, and they soon discovered that it could also be used to show large images on a screen, when linked with projecting equipment. Throughout 1895 they shot films and projected them for select groups. Their first screening for the general public was held in Paris in December 1895.

Elsewhere other inventors were also busy. In Germany, the brothers Emil and Max Skladanowsky devised an apparatus and projected films in Berlin in November 1895. In Britain, a machine developed by Birt Acres and Robert W. Paul was used to project films in London in January 1896. In the United States, a projector called the Vitascope was constructed around the same time by Charles Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat. Armat then entered into a commercial alliance with Edison to manufacture the Vitascope, and the device exhibited projected motion pictures in New York City in April 1896.

The Lumière brothers held a unique place among all these simultaneous efforts, since they were innovative filmmakers as well as inventors and manufacturers. The many films they made ring 1895 and 1896, though very short, are considered pivotal in the history of motion pictures. Arroseur et arrosé (Waterer and Watered, 1896), a brief comedy drawn from a newspaper cartoon, shows a gardener getting drenched with a hose as the result of a boy’s prank. La sortie de l’usine Lumière à Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory, 1895) and Arrivée d’un train en gare (Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, 1896), which shows a train coming to a station and passengers getting off, were among the so-called actuality films—films that depicted actual events rather than a story told by actors—for which the Lumières became noted.

III ONE-REELERS

During the decade following the advent of projected motion pictures, films were shown as part of vaudeville or variety programs, at carnivals and fairgrounds, in lecture halls and churches, and graally in spaces converted for the exclusive exhibition of movies. Most films ran no longer than 10 to 12 minutes, which reflected the amount of film that could be wound on a standard reel for projection (hence the term one-reelers). Many were comedies or actualities, following the Lumière brothers’ example. Their purpose was spectacle—to show something astounding, unusual, titillating, or perhaps newsworthy. But filmmakers also struck out in new directions, especially toward fantasy and narrative.

French magician and filmmaker Georges Méliès was the outstanding creator of fantasy films in early cinema. Méliès exploited the new medium to enhance his magic acts through techniques such as stop-motion photography—interrupting the camera’s action and moving or substituting people and objects—so that, for example, a woman appeared to turn into a skeleton. He created elaborate backdrops with multiple scenes and costume changes for these so-called trick films that were widely emulated by other filmmakers. Of the hundreds of works he made between 1896 and 1912, perhaps the best-known is Le voyage dans la lune (A Trip to the Moon, 1902), which in one scene features the animated human face of the moon being struck in the eye by a rocket.

In the United States, a former projectionist and traveling exhibitor, Edwin S. Porter, took charge of motion-picture proction at Edison’s company in 1901 and began making longer films that told a story. As with Méliès’s films, these required multiple shots that could be edited into a narrative sequence. Porter’s most notable film—and the most famous work of early cinema—was The Great Train Robbery (1903), which is credited with establishing movies as a commercial entertainment medium. With its rapid shifts of location, including action on a moving train, this film offered spectators a breadth and immediacy of vision that became hallmarks of the cinema experience.

Spurred by The Great Train Robbery and subsequent story films, film exhibition greatly expanded in the United States around 1905. One phenomenon was the proliferation of nickelodeon theaters, converted storefronts in instrial cities that charged 5 cents for admission and attracted working-class audiences. Demand from these theaters increased the volume of film proction and the profits for procers, but it also brought forth criticism from reformers concerning unsanitary or unsafe conditions in theaters and immoral subject matter in films. In 1908 Edison took the lead in establishing the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), a consortium of procers with common goals: controlling proction and distribution so as to eliminate cheap theaters, raising admission prices, cooperating with censorship bodies, and preventing film stock from getting into the hands of nonmember procers. However, the independent procers excluded from the MPPC continued to obtain materials and make the most popular films. They also led the way toward multireel, feature-length films. By 1915 the MPPC was under attack by the U.S. government as an illegal monopoly (although an ineffectual one), and the independents were combining into the companies that would dominate American filmmaking for decades to come.

IV SILENT MOVIES

With a few experimental exceptions, motion pictures from their earliest days until the late 1920s lacked synchronous sound (sound that matches the action). But silent movies were rarely silent. Early films almost always were projected with piano or organ accompaniment, and sometimes also with a narrator or live actors behind the screen. As feature-length films (four reels, with a running time of 40 to 50 minutes or more) became the norm in the 1910s, live orchestras began to play in larger theaters, frequently using music written specifically for the film.

Until World War I (1914-1918) European filmmakers dominated the world film market. France was considered the leading film-procing country, though Italy, Denmark, and other countries also played a significant role. However, the war, fought on European soil, disrupted commercial filmmaking there. With a sudden drop in European film exports, some regions, such as Latin America, experienced a brief surge in film proction. But U.S. companies soon took over markets overseas, using the same tactics of high-volume proction and lower prices that the Europeans had. By the 1920s some three-quarters of films screened around the world came from the United States.

A American Silent Movies

Even before the war, the United States had made its mark on the world filmmaking scene with epics and comedies. Moreover, U.S. moviemakers had begun to congregate in southern California in the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood (see The Move to Hollywood, below), creating a film community apart from older urban centers of politics and the arts, and a magical new symbol for popular entertainment and glamour.

A1 D. W. Griffith

The work of D. W. Griffith exemplifies the transformation of motion pictures from the early days of one-reelers to an era of Hollywood’s worldwide dominance. Starting out as an actor in films directed by Edwin S. Porter, Griffith in 1908 became a director at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York City. He was initially responsible for turning out two one-reel films a week, and between 1908 and 1913 he directed nearly 500 films. Amidst this breakneck schele, he and his co-workers developed many of the cinema’s basic storytelling conventions: moving the camera close to the action, using many separate shots, and editing the shots to cut back and forth among different actions. All these techniques served to shape a narrative, rather than present a spectacle as earlier films had tended to do. Griffith also nurtured performers such as Mary Pickford and Lillian Gish and emphasized an intimate, restrained style of acting suitable for camera close-ups.

Leaving Biograph in 1913 to make full-length features, Griffith planned a historical epic of the American Civil War (1861-1865). The Birth of a Nation (1915), three hours in length, stunned audiences with its dazzling spectacle of a still-recent event and established motion pictures as an art form for cultured spectators. Yet the film’s racist presumptions—specifically, its defense of white supremacy to protect racial purity—was controversial in its own time and remains repugnant decades later. Griffith made another epic, Intolerance (1916), which intertwined four stories about victims of prejudice, and continued to work as an independent filmmaker into the 1920s. Eventually, financial pressures forced him to become a director at a Hollywood studio, and he made his last film in 1931.

字数限制，没办法全发给你，如需要请留言。

⑺ 高分跪求美国科幻电影发展史英文介绍！急！急！只要回答出来悬赏好说！！

As one can conclude from the term science-fiction movie, these films have a background of an advanced, fictional technology that is normally set in the future. Most of these movies have in common that they expose their own vision of the future, with new technologies commonly being the most noticeable change in these hypothetical worlds. Besides visions about all kinds of scientific areas, the given context of this work concentrates particularly on computer interfaces.

As a part of the seminar "Intelligent Spaces" approaches of mainstream science fiction motion pictures are extracted and analysed regarding their references in real-life human computer interaction (HCI) designs. Similarities to ongoing researches will be outlined - especially to those, which are presented by other talks of this seminar that have already taken place. To be able to draw comparisons to reality it is often necessary to view the ideas and visions of a movie on a relatively abstract level.
At first some key factors that determine or influence the design of HCI in movies will be discussed. Starting from this viewpoint numerous examples from selected movies will be observed. Due to the limitation of the material that was at hand, we cannot claim to provide a complete overview of all movies, but the available selection should suffice and allow a representative inspection of the movie scene.
We will start with a review of movies that do not show any concepts at all or merely adapt common everyday techniques of that time. The second and main part introces visionary interaction design, divided into different areas of interaction technologies, followed by a brief view at a couple of satiric movie scenes and the conclusions of this work in the end.

⑻ 简述电影的起源和发展

起源

1872年的一天，在美国加利福尼亚州一个酒店里，斯坦福与科恩发生了激烈的争执：马奔跑时蹄子是否都着地？斯坦福认为奔跑的马在跃起的瞬间四蹄是腾空的；科恩却认为，马奔跑时始终有一蹄着地。

争执的结果谁也说服不了谁，于是就采取了美国人惯用的方式打赌来解决。他们请来一位驯马好手来做裁决，然而，这位裁判员也难以断定谁是谁非。这很正常，因为单凭人的眼睛确实难以看清快速奔跑的马蹄是如何运动的。

裁判的好友——英国摄影师爱德华·麦布里奇（Edward Muybridge）知道了这件事后，表示可由他来试一试。他在跑道的一边安置了24架照相机，排成一行，相机镜头都对准跑道。在跑道的另一边，他打了24个木桩，每根木桩上都系上一根细绳，这些细绳横穿跑道，分别系到对面每架照相机快门上。

一切准备就绪后，麦布里奇牵来了一匹漂亮的骏马，让它从跑道一端飞奔到另一端。当跑马经过这一区域时，依次把24极引线绊断，24架照相机的快门也就依次被拉动而拍下了24张照片。麦布里奇把这些照片按先后顺序剪接起来。

每相邻的两张照片动作差别很小，它们组成了一条连贯的照片带。裁判根据这组照片，终于看出马在奔跑时，所有蹄子都腾空。按理说，故事到此就应结束了，但这场打赌及其判定的奇特方法却引起了人们很大的兴趣。麦布里奇一次又一次地向人们出示那条录有奔马形象的照片带。

一次，有人无意识地快速牵动那条照片带，结果眼前出现了一幕奇异的景象：各张照片中那些静止的马叠成一匹运动的马，它竟然“活”起来了！

发展

1888年10月，法国电影发明家路易斯·普林斯（路易斯·艾梅·奥古斯汀·雷·普林斯Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince）在英格兰西约克郡利兹城进行了一项有里程碑意义的工作。

他使用自己的单镜头摄影机和伊士曼柯达公司的纸质胶片接连拍摄了《朗德海花园场景》（Roundhay Garden Scene）和一段利兹大桥的街景。

这比他的竞争者——比如卢米埃尔兄弟和托马斯·爱迪生——要早上几年。他未能在美国按计划完成这项新发明的公开演示，因为他于1890年9月16日在一辆火车上神秘地失踪了。

美国及欧洲的早期电影史是以摄影机专利权之争为标志的。1888年普林斯的一种有16个镜头的设备在美国被授予双专利，它是由一个电影摄影机和一个投影器组合而成的。

他的另一发明——一种单镜头摄影机（即MkI）在美国却被拒绝授予专利，因为已有同类产品持有专利。不过，几年后美国人托马斯·爱迪生申请同类产品专利时却没有被拒绝。

1888年10月14日，使用改进版的单镜头摄影机（即MkII）拍摄了电影《朗德海花园场景》。他在利兹的汉斯莱特区（Hunslet）的惠特利工厂以及惠特利位于朗德海的家——奥克伍德农庄（Oakwood Grange）展出了他这第一部电影。

但他们没有在更广的范围里传播这一电影。他在1887年至1888年同时拍摄了电影《利兹大桥》《绕过墙角者》《拉手风琴者》，每部电影的片长为2秒左右。

接下来的几年，为了使自己和家人移民到纽约去，并进一步进行研究，他取得法国-美国双重国籍。1890年9月，他计划到纽约的聚美大楼举办公开展览，然而他本人却神秘地消失了。因此，普林斯对摄影机的诞生所作的贡献常被人忽视。

(8)英美电影发展史英文扩展阅读

电影是19世纪美国国家生活水平上升大众产生新需求的娱乐产物。

电影根据视觉暂留原理，运用照相（以及录音）手段把外界事物的影像（以及声音）摄录在胶片上，通过放映（同时还原声音），用电的方式将活动影像投射到银幕上（以及同步声音）以表现一定内容的现代技术。

电影是一种视觉及听觉艺术，利用胶卷、录像带或数位媒体将影像和声音捕捉，再加上后期的编辑工作而成。

电影是一种综合的现代艺术，亦正如艺术本身，有着复杂而繁多的科系。电影有很多类型，也有多种分类方法。

电影从有声电影开始发展，目前已经到了电影的特技时代了。运用大量的电脑特技制作出来的电影，受广大中年以下的朋友欢迎。

国外电影广告在美国和英国的电影广告中，有这样八种标记：

（1）美国X——禁止未成年者观看的影片，G——所有观众可看片，R——十七岁以下禁止观看，PG——一般观众可看。

（2）英国U——内容正派片，A——一般观众可看片，X——18岁以下青少年禁看片，AA——少年儿童禁看的凶杀片。

电影其实就是被人称之为艺术而迂回戏话的一幕联想而已。

1911年意大利诗人和电影先驱者乔托·卡努杜发表了一篇名为《第七艺术宣言》的论著，他在世界电影史上第一次宣称电影是一种表演艺术，从此，“第七艺术”就成为了电影艺术的同义词。

现如今有3D电影，是视觉的“长宽高”；美国拍摄电影有5D拍摄技术。

其中电影最高的奖项为“美国电影奥斯卡金像奖、法国戛纳国际电影节金棕榈奖、威尼斯国际电影节金狮奖、德国柏林国际电影节金熊奖”。

⑼ 英国的电影的发展史

英国人参与了电影的发明，1889年，W.多尼索尔普在英国制造了摄影机和转动架，拍摄特拉法尔加广场全景；1895年，B.艾克里斯发明了“动力灯”，拍摄了埃普瑟姆地方的赛马、牛津和剑桥两校划艇比赛、基尔运河通航典礼。这是世界上最早的新闻纪录片，但当时没有放映机，没能及时映出。R.W.保罗1896年 3月26日在奥林比亚大厅里为观众作了电影的首次商业性映出，上映的节目是他自己拍摄的《多佛海的狂浪》。后来，保罗摄制了许多喜剧短片，其中有《大兵求爱记》，可放映一分钟。保罗在索思盖特还建造了制片车间。配备了特技效果的设施.
对英国早期电影最有影响的是布赖顿的几位摄影师。其中有E.柯林斯、A.G.史密斯、J.威廉森等，这几位电影先驱，后来被人称为布赖顿学派。他们最早采用了两次曝光、移动摄影、迭印、全景、倒拍、停拍等技巧。柯林斯拍过30部影片，其中只有一部《中断的旋律》保存下来。史密斯在《祖母的放大镜》（1900）中采用特大特写镜头，银幕上出现了放大的走动的表、笼中的金丝雀、人的眼睛；他的第一部作品《夜晚》，表现警察提着灯巡夜，沿路照亮了乞丐、醉汉、行窃的小偷，他用摄影机代替人的眼睛，把它变成了活的东西，这种新的手法，可以说是现代蒙太奇的开端。威廉森则在新闻片中自由地交替变换事件地点并采用外景等，他的《士兵的归来》和《战前和战后的后备兵》两部影片，描绘了真实生活片断，在银幕上首次提出社会问题。
当时的电影艺术家和技术革新家还有C.赫普沃思。1897年，他撰写的《活动摄影术——或电影摄影入门》，是世界上最早电影论著之一。他曾改进冲洗影片器具、印片机和胶片打孔机。1898年他拍摄了《铁路切断中的快车》；接着拍摄的《艾丽斯漫游奇境记》（1903），长800英尺，分16场景，场景间交融衔接；另一部《浪子救人》（1905）利用摄影机述说故事，结构复杂，采取了分镜头剧本的串联、剪辑、摇拍、低角度摄影等技巧；1907年，他还设计过录音系统。同一时期摄制故事片的还有F.S.莫特肖。他的 《抢劫邮车》、《白昼行劫》（两部影片均摄于1903年）奠定了惊险片在英国的地位。
早期英国电影除纪录像片和故事片外，还出现了风景片，如G.潘廷格的《罗伯特•斯科特漫游南极》（1913），颇受欢迎。1914年，英国电影工作者制作了第一部动画片。G.皮尔逊导演的《血字的研究》是根据小说《福尔摩斯探案》中的故事拍摄的第一部侦探片；他的另一部影片《厄尔塔斯——死里逃生的人》（1916），则仿照法国影片《芳托马斯》样式，是第一套动作惊险连续片集。
20年代，赫普沃思因拍摄了《阿尔夫的纽扣》（1920）和其它几部成功作品而名振一时。皮尔逊制作了《一切都不在乎》（1920）、《爆竹》（1921）、《爱情生活和笑声》（1923）以及《起床号声》（1924）。英国无声影片时代最受欢迎的明星B.鲍尔芾就是他培育出来的。另一部受观众欢迎的影片是H.肖的《基普斯》（1921），但是，最为杰出而商业上最成功的作品要推G.卡茨的《女人对女人》（1923），它的成功，是制片人M.巴尔康、导演V.萨维尔、剧作家卡茨和他的助手希区柯克，A.以及当时为大家喜爱的好莱坞女明星B.康普逊合作的结果。希区柯克在20年代后期在盖恩斯巴勒影片公司因执导《快乐的花园》（1925）和《房客》（1926）两片而成名。这家公司的成功产品还有卡茨的《老鼠》（1925）、A.布鲁内尔的《英国老家》（1927）和《永恒的仙女》（1928）。与此同时，也崛起了另外几位新人：导演兼制片人H.威尔科克斯继成名作《朱金洲》（1923）之后导演了影片《十夜谈》（1924）、《唯一道路》（1925）、《涅尔`格温》（1926）和《黎明》（1928）；L.戴•科多瓦导演了《她》（1925）；M.埃尔维导演了《阿尔芒蒂埃尔来的小姐》（1926）与《海军将帅的副官》（1926）。
随着电影制片事业的发展，英国的电影放映场所逐步脱离游艺场而建起可容几百观众的影戏院，当时还雇用钢琴师和小乐队在放映电影时进行伴奏。不久，一批大影院开办起来，但是自1909年起，美、法两国影片占领英国市场，本国影片只占全国上映总数的15％，因此，英国既不能从国内电影市场收回大量资金，又没有充足财力投入制作优质影片、同外国影片争夺国内外市场。第一次世界大战爆发后，英国电影生产更受影响。从1916年起，英国加征娱乐税，对影院营业更为不利，电影事业进一步遭到危机。大战结束后，美国影片源源而来，使英国影片只占在本国上映影片的5％，出口影片更是屈指可数，因此一些著名制片人如赫普沃思也不得不于1924年关闭制片厂。为保护民族电影，政府当局于1927年正式通过了电影法案，规定限额分配比率，要求1935年须达到总数的20％，使英国影片在全国影院的上映比率逐年提高。此时，新的制片厂如戈蒙特公司、英国国际影片公司和英狮公司先后成立。到20年代末，英国又摄制出一批引人注目的影片，如希区柯克的《决斗场》（1928）、阿斯奎斯，A.的《流星》（1928）和《地下》（1928）、E.A.杜邦的《皮卡迪利大街》（1929）。因为定额分配影院上映率，需要大量影片填补空档，刺激英国电影出现了一番兴旺景象。但是好影片要耗费大量财力和时间，为了供应市场紧缺的需要，出厂的产品仍然是大批质量差、省工省时的平庸影片。
1929年，有声影片问世。英国面临的问题同其它各国大致相同，如录音方法简陋，设备笨重，影片内容从头到尾，不是喋喋不休的对白，就是接二连三的歌曲。希区柯克导演的《讹诈》，拍了一半而改为有声影片，他在运用声音效果方面，匠心独运，这部被公认的英国第一部有声片，对其他导演很有启发。此后拍摄出了一批较成功的有声片，包括：希区柯克的《谋杀》（1930），阿斯奎斯的《逃出达特穆尔》（1930）、《正告英格兰》（1931）和《跳舞吧，美丽的女郎》（1931），萨维尔的《W——计划》（1931）和《办公室的少女》（1932），W.福特的《罗马快车》（1932），威尔科克斯的《神奇之夜》（1932）等。
30年代，英国电影出现了短期的繁荣景象，每年影片生产量为150部到200部，故事片的复兴同出身于匈牙利的制片家柯达，A.大有关系，他于1933年定居英国，创办伦敦电影制片厂以后，摄制了一批成功的影片，其中以《亨利八世的私生活》（即《英宫艳史》，1933）为最。他用新的观点处理历史题材，提出社会出路问题，迎合观众的民主思想，取得很大成功，该片在国外享受的盛誉，远远超过英国其它影片。更为重要的是柯达孜孜不倦、勤奋进取的精神，促使所有电影业的工作人员努力提高专业水平。他为英国影片开拓了向国外输出的广阔前景，又给电影事业灌输了乐观与奋发的风气。他的公司还在世界各国收罗人才，礼聘他们来英国工作，推进了英国电影事业的发展。如德国导演P.津纳执导的《凯瑟琳女皇》（1934）、美国明星范朋克，D.主演的《唐璜》（1934）、法国导演克莱尔，R.拍摄的《鬼魂西行》（1935）、美国导演兼美工设计家W.C.孟席斯所拍的《未来世界》（1936），都是引人瞩目的影片。这家公司制作的影片如Z.柯达导演的《河上刺儿头》（1935）、《伏象神童》（1937）以及柯达本人拍的《伦勃朗传》（即《画圣情痴》，1936）等，都是成功之作。
这时期英国的其它制片人和导演纷纷紧步柯达后尘，由M.巴尔康监制、希区柯克导演的影片《万事通》（1934）、《三十九级台阶》（即《国防大秘密》，1935）和《破坏》（即《薄命花》，1937）都极为成功。此外，萨维尔的《好伙伴》（1933）、《长青树》（1934）和《铁公爵》（1935），威尔科克斯的《涅尔•格温》（1934）、《老德鲁里的假腿》（1935）和《维多利亚女皇》（1937），L.门德兹的《犹太人苏斯》（1934），T.本特利的《老古玩店》（1935），R.史蒂文森的《都铎•罗斯》（1936），B.维尔特尔的《罗得岛》（1936），均获较高评价。到1937年，英国故事影片产量达到了200多部。但好景不长，大多数制片人不讲求质量，拍摄的影片没有票房价值，加之多数资金来自借贷，年终结算，很少获利。到1938年，生产骤然下降，英国议会为挽救这个局面，在这年又通过新电影法案，规定提高英国影片在国内上映的分配定额，从1938年的12.5％，逐年增高至1947年的25％；抵制滥拍成本低、质量差的影片；允许外国资金向英国电影事业投资。根据这个条款，美国米高梅公司和20世纪福斯电影公司都投放了它们的资金，在英国开办了几家联合制片厂拍片，如米高梅公司投资的《一个美国佬在牛津》（即《留英外史》，1938）、《城堡》（即《卫城记》，1938）和《再见，奇普斯先生》（即《万世师表》，1939），福斯公司投资的彩色片《晨之翼》（1937）等。这些影片全都由好莱坞导演执导、好莱坞明星主演，英国方面只提供场地、摄影器械、技术人员和个别演员。英国电影导演这期间也拍出了几部成功的影片，如阿斯奎斯的《卖花女》（1938）、希区柯克的《失踪的女人》（即《琼花劫》，1938）、里德，C.的《银行休假日》（1938）和《群星普照》（1939）、Z.柯达的《四羽毛》（1939）等。
这几年，英国电影事业也实行了明星制度，相继登上明星宝座的是：霍华德，L.、劳顿，C.、G.菲尔兹、唐纳，R.、M.奥勃朗、M.洛克伍德、费雯丽、哈里森，R.、奥立弗，L.等。
1929年格里尔逊在英帝国交易局电影部资助下，导演了一部纪录片《飘网渔船》，反映北海捕捞鲱鱼渔民的生活，富有诗情画意，使他成为英国纪录片运动的创始人。他主张电影艺术的目的在于社会教育，并认为苏联电影是表现电影社会功能的实际事例。他从工商企业得到经济上的资助，并吸收有志于现实主义影片的艺术工作者参与这个运动。格里尔逊纪录电影学派的人员中有P.罗塔、B.赖特、E.恩斯特、A.埃尔顿、H.沃特、D.泰勒、S.莱格、A.卡瓦尔康蒂等，他们的作品反映英国社会出现的尖锐问题，如失业、劳动条件差、居住环境恶劣等，在艺术处理上也有新的追求。
第二次世界大战爆发后，英国电影业无法正常生产，大部分电影界人才被征入伍，故事片生产从1940年的108部下降到1942年的46部。但观众反而有增无已，影片的票房收入直线上升。第二次大战期间，英国邮政总局的电影机构被新闻部合并，成为皇家电影机构，给了纪录像片工作者施展才干的良机，他们拍出了一批优秀的纪录片，如卡瓦尔康蒂的《最初的日子》（1939）、H.詹宁斯和H.瓦特的《伦敦必胜》（1940）、瓦特的《今晚的目标》（1941）、J.福尔莫斯的《海岸司令部》（1942）、詹宁斯的《火已点燃》（1942），R.博尔廷的《沙漠大捷》、P.杰克逊的《西方进军》（1944），还有英、美合拍，由里德，C.和美国人G.卡宁合导的《真正的光荣》（1945）。这些纪录片在战时所起的作用很大。另外还有些故事片也有很大纪实或宣传的性质，如P.赫斯特和布鲁内尔 3人合导的《雄狮添翼》（1939）、鲍威尔，M.的《第49°纬线》（即《侵略者》，1941）、N.科沃德和利恩，D.合导的《我们所在的队伍》（即《海神》，1942）、迪金森的《近亲》（1942）等。其它有关大战题材的故事片还有里德的《铁血忠魂》（1944）、鲍威尔的《壮士春梦》（1943）等。与此同时，也拍有不少其它题材的影片。较突出的有柯达的《巴格达窃贼》（1940）、迪克森的《煤气灯》（1940）和《首相》（1941）、B.迪安的《二十一天》（1940）、帕斯卡尔的《巴巴拉少校》（1941）、里德的《基普斯》（1941）、L.阿利斯的《穿灰衣服的人》（1943）、奥立弗，L.的《亨利五世》（1944）、吉列特的《臭名昭著的绅士》（1945）和《深夜》（即《新聊斋志异》，1945），还有豪华历史剧《恺撒和克列奥帕特拉》（又译为《璇宫艳后》，1945）、N.科沃德和利恩，D.合作的《相见恨晚》（1945）等。
J.A.兰克是在第二次世界大战时期崛起的英国电影事业家。早在30年代，他开始从事宗教电影的摄制工作。1935年，创办英国全国电影公司，摄制了第一部商业性电影，同年他与C.M.伍尔夫合办电影发行总公司。1941年兰克已掌握有英国 3大电影放映网中的两大放映网。大战结束时，他的总公司扩展成了势力雄厚的联合企业，拥有英国的制片、发行和放映事业的大部分实权。他雄心勃勃，计划建立巨资故事片厂，包括儿童片、动画片部门，摄制新闻纪录连集片，开办电影学校，专门培养有希望的童星。他想用巨资大片打进美国市场，把英国电影事业从多年困境之中拯救出来，1947年，他去美国谈判推销他的影片。不料英国政府却在这时颁布法令，要征收国外进口影片75％的税收，美国各家制片公司坚决抵制，好莱坞影片全部停止输往英国，使各地影院减少了大量片源。兰克想在美国打开市场的计划也成为泡影，英国电影界陷入了极为困难的境地。英国政府于是敦促兰克和其它制片人增产影片以填补空缺。但是英国电影业经济拮据，影片能收回成本的也为数不多。1948年，英国政府只得撤销外国影片的进口税，美国影片又立刻大量涌进，英国影片在本土银幕上仍无容身之地。英国政府再度规定：美国影片从英国所得利润必须将其中的一定数额向英国电影事业投资，这种办法又让美国电影势力进一步深入英国电影事业。此时期，兰克影片公司和别的制片厂比较优秀的作品有：利恩根据狄更斯小说拍摄的《锦绣前程》（即《孤星血泪》，1948）和《雾都孤儿》（1948），鲍威尔和普雷斯伯格的《上天阶梯》（即《太虚幻境》，1946）、《黑水仙花》（又译为《思凡》，1947）和《红菱艳》（1948），奥立弗自导、自演的《王子复仇记》（1948），里德导演的《虎胆忠魂》（1947）、《倒下的偶像》（1948）和《第三个人》（1949），还有迪金森的《黑桃皇后》（1949）等。
为了维持和保护本国电影事业，英国政府只得仍旧采用上映定额分配办法，规定从1950年起，分配英国影片上映的定额要增加到30％，可惜当时娱乐捐税仍保持战时标准，电影事业所得实惠甚微。英国政府乃于1949年成立国家电影筹资公司，通过该公司将钱借给电影事业；接着1950年又创立英国电影生产基金会，专门支配从电影票上征收的捐税，作为补助电影生产。不过，这时候电视越来越受群众欢迎，电影院的上座率开始以惊人的速度下降。
从50年代起，英国出现了由巴尔康主持的“伊灵喜剧影片”。伊灵是制片厂名，位于伦敦西郊。伊灵喜剧表现实际生活，敢于打破常规，描绘反对官僚主义的人物的各种遭遇，以新眼光观察生活，温和地批判贵族阶层和人情风俗的繁文缛节。最成功的作品当推哈默的《善人与贵族》（1949），麦肯德里克的《清洁的小岛》（1949）、《白衣男子》（1952）和《专门勾引女人的人》（1955）。其它值得提到的有C.克莱顿的《大叫大嚷》（1947）、《拉旺德山暴乱》（1951），H.科尼利厄斯的《史姆利科的护照》（1949）、《日内瓦的妇人》（1953）以及M.江普的《天堂的笑声》（1950）等。
英国政府限定了美国影片所得利润的高额百分比要投资在英国事业以后，美国公司开始恢复营业，与英国合作拍片。这一阶段英美合拍的较佳作品有J.尼格列斯科的《流浪儿》（1950）、R.沃尔什的《霍恩布洛上尉》（1951）、休斯登，J.的《非洲皇后号》（1952）和《莫比•迪克》（1956），而最杰出的作品则是利恩的《桂河大桥》（1957）。这是一部当时上座率最高的战争片。
美国的部分电影工作者由于遭受麦卡锡主义的迫害，纷纷离开好莱坞。导演J.洛西到伦敦定居后，接踵而来的又有卓别林，C.、R.莱斯特、库布里克、吕美特等。这些人为英国电影艺术作出了贡献。
英国电影事业多年以来得不到振兴，1959年，一伙年轻人以林赛•安德森、托尼•理查德森、卡雷尔•赖兹为首发表宣言并摄制了一系列影片，倡导自由电影运动，这次运动和反对文学与戏剧中传统价值观有联系，也与“愤怒的年轻人”运动的政治和精神抗议相结合。它的基本内容是要求用积极态度来表现艺术工作者的社会责任感，反对资产阶级的唯美主义。他们鲜明地反对资本主义的社会现实和道德价值观，如J.克莱顿的《屋顶阁楼间》（即《金屋泪》，1958），理查德森的《愤怒的回顾》（1959）、《蜜味》（1961）和《长跑家的孤寂》（1963），赖兹的《星期六晚上和星期日早晨》（1960），安德森的《这种运动生活》（1963）。此外重要的影片还有施莱辛格，J.的《恋爱有术》（1962）和《骗子比利》（1963）等。到60年代中，自由电影的调子有所变化，把反抗仅作为个人对待生活态度的一种表现方法而不再具有社会性含义。这种倾向在理查德森的影片《汤姆•琼斯》（1963）中表现得最为鲜明。60年代末70年代初，自由电影比较重要的作品是安德森的影片《假如》（1968）和《哦，幸运儿》（1973）。在这两部影片里导演在表现当代社会冲突时把敏锐的观察和独创的概括巧妙地结合在一起，在思想上和艺术上都达到了新的高度。
60年代英国利用美国的资金拍了不少影片，其中比较重要的有J.李•汤普逊的《纳瓦隆的大炮》（1961）、利恩的《阿拉伯的劳伦斯》（1962）、T.扬的《乌有博士》（1962）、P.格伦维尔的《绳环》（1964）。其它英国名片有G.格林的《愤怒的沉默》（1960）、卡迪夫，J.的《儿子和情人》（1960）、克莱顿的《无罪的人》（1961）、B.福布斯的《一个雨天下午的集会》（1964）和《L形的房间》（1962）、施莱辛格的《亲爱的》（1965）和《远离狂乱的人群》（1967）、L.吉尔伯特的《阿尔菲》（1966）等。
英国国会在70年代又通过一个新电影法案，把本国影片在影院的分配定额提高到30％。增加了电影筹资公司的预算，因为美国投向英国电影事业的资金数额逐渐减少，以至完全停止了。随着电视越来越普遍，影院上座率不断降低，尽管提高票价，1976年也落到票房收入的历史最低点，同年，英国订立一条税法，规定外侨影片制作者在全世界范围收入的75％要交纳所得税，从而阻塞了国外投资。这一年，英国故事片生产降到64部；1977年又降到42部。
70年代上半期英国的重要影片（其中有些是美国导演的作品）有利恩的《瑞安的女儿》（1970）、C.迈尔斯的《处女与吉普赛人》（1970）、R.波兰斯基的《麦克佩斯》（1971）、J.洛西的《送信人》（1971）、阿顿波罗，R.的《青年时代的丘吉尔》（1972）、 M.弗兰克的《阶级烙印》（1973）、库布里克的《巴莱•林登》（1975）、拉塞尔的《汤米》（1975）、库珀的《太上皇》（1975）等。
70年代后期，英国制片业在美国资本牵制下，松木和爱尔斯垂两大制片厂虽也自己投资拍片，主要还是出租场地去同美国合作。美国著名连集卖座片《超人》、《星球大战》等是在这两个制片厂的摄影棚里拍的，还有一部分英国电影创作人员去外国拍片。
进入80年代，英国电影事业有所好转，1981年的《火的战车》和1982年的《甘地》两片连续获得奥斯卡最佳影片奖。《教育丽塔》（1983）、《当地英雄》（1983）、《印度之行》（1984）等片也获得好评，1986年，艾非里的《一间可以看见风景的房间》和乔菲的《使命》更获得广泛的国际声誉。
这期间英国影片市场仍然被美国电影所垄断，在全部票房收入中，英国影片仅占10％左右，许多影片在国内的收入仅能收回投资的10～40％。
英国的大电影制片厂有“松木”、“爱尔斯垂”、“金波顿”和“图克南”。主要电影教育机构有伦敦电影学校、民族电影学校，皇家艺术学院、伦敦电视电影学院。主要电影研究机构为英国电影学院（BFI）（建于1933年）。伦敦国际电影节是世界著名电影节，每4年举办一次，为非竞赛性的。主要电影出版物有《画面与音响》（1932年创刊）和《银幕》（1959年创刊）。