英美電影發展史英文

⑴ 求一篇電影發展史的作文，大學的，150字左右，要英文的急求！

The history of film spans over 100 years, from the latter part of the 19th century to the present day. Motion pictures developed graally from a carnival novelty to one of the most important tools of communication and entertainment, and mass media in the 20th century and into the 21st century. Most films before 1930 were silent. Motion picture films have substantially affected the arts, technology, and politics.
The cinema was invented ring the 1890s, ring what is now called the instrial revolution. It was considered a cheaper, simpler way to provide entertainment to the masses. Movies would become the most popular visual art form of the late Victorian age. It was simpler because of the fact that before the cinema people would have to travel long distances to see major dioramas or amusement parks. With the advent of the cinema this changed. During the first decade of the cinema's existence, inventors worked to improve the machines for making and showing films. The cinema is a complicated medium, and before it could be invented, several technological requirements had to be met

⑵ 用英文介紹電影由有聲到無聲發展的過程

從默片到有聲電影
所謂的默片在其鼎盛時代也常常有音樂或者聲效相伴，1926年8月，由約翰.巴利摩爾主演的《唐璜》在紐約的華納劇院首映，這次首映採用了Vitaphone聲音系統，以每秒331/3轉唱片來使電影聲畫同步。新的發明很快就跟來了，1927年10月華納公司的《爵士歌王》敲響了默片的喪鍾。 到1930年為止，只有5%的好萊塢的影片還是默片，華納兄弟採用了更方便的由Western Electric開發的膠片攜載聲音的技術，這一技術需要採用每秒24格的放映速度，從而誕生了這一今天仍然採用的標准。這一變化徹底改變了電影膠片的形態。
35mm默片的滿畫面大致是正方形的，比例是1.33:1 (或4:3，象電視畫面)，1927年最早的聲音印在膠片上時是1.21:1
1932年，製片商和放映商聯合建立了膠片上聲音軌跡寬度的標准，從而創造了新的1.37:1比例。隨著這一整個業界技術方針的確立，電影中的對白、歌舞急劇增加.在30年代，電影觀眾增加了一倍。 電影工業繼續尋找新的發展，很快，就開始經歷彩色電影，開始了一個新的時代。

From silent to sound moviesThe so-called silent in its heyday there is often accompanied by music or sound effects, in 1926 August, by John Barrymore." Don Juan" starring Warner theater premiere in New York, the premiere of the Vitaphone sound system, with every second 331 / 3 rpm records to make the film synchronized sound. The new invention was soon to come, in 1927 October Warner's" the jazz singer" sounded the death knell of the silent. Until 1930, only 5% of the Hollywood videos or films, Warner Brothers used the more convenient by Western Electric development of the film carrying voice technology, this technology requires the use of the projection speed at 24 frames per second, resulting in the birth of this remains today the standard. This change has revolutionized the film morphology.35mm silent movie full screen is roughly square, the proportion is 1.33 : 1 ( or 4: 3, like a television ), 1927 the earliest sound on film is 1.21: 1In 1932, procers and exhibitors to jointly establish a film sound track width standard, thus creating a new 1.37 : 1 scale. With this throughout the technology instry policy establishment, movies, dance has increased dramatically. In the 30's, movie goers doubled. The film instry continue to seek new development, quickly, began to experience a color film, the start of a new era.

英文是自己用網路翻譯的，可能有很多語法錯誤。希望對樓主有幫助1

⑶ 英文影片的英文簡介

1、《英國病人》

Directed by Anthony mingra, the English patient is adapted from the novel of the same name by Michael ondaj.

The film is co starred by Ralph Fiennes, Christine Scott Thomas and Juliet Binoche. The film was released in the United States on November 6, 1996.

The movie takes the war and desert as the background, decing a love tragedy across time and space.

During World War II, a British plane was shot down by the German army while flying over the Sahara desert.

The pilot on the plane was completely burned on the face. The local people rescued him and sent him to the Allied field hospital.

Because of the injury, the pilot lost his memory and could not remember who he was, so he could only be called "English Patient".

《英國病人》由安東尼·明格拉執導，是根據作家邁克爾·翁達傑的同名小說改編而成。

該片由拉爾夫·費因斯、克里斯汀·斯科特·托馬斯、朱麗葉·比諾什等聯袂主演。影片於1996年11月6日在美國上映 。

電影以戰爭和沙漠為背景，演繹一場跨越時空的愛情悲劇。

二戰期間，一架英國飛機在飛越撒哈拉沙漠時被德軍擊落，飛機上的機師面部被全部燒傷，當地人將他救活後送往了盟軍戰地醫院。

由於受傷這個機師喪失了記憶，不能想起自己是誰，因此只能被叫做「英國病人」。

影片講述由萊昂納多·迪卡普里奧扮演的造夢師，帶領約瑟夫·高登-萊維特、艾倫·佩吉扮演的特工團隊，進入他人夢境，從他人的潛意識中盜取機密，並重塑他人夢境的故事。

⑷ 英文電影發展史

這個也太有難度了吧，非得專業人士不行啊，建議你還是直接娶你老師那邊索要得了，呵呵，大不了請吃頓飯完事！

⑸ 急~求美國動畫發展歷史英文介紹，最好有圖片！！

Cartload : You are American, the U.S. and Asia Animation exchange of Principal Adviser to the United States in the development of track position is very well, Can you talk about the United States is how track instries from small to large and from weak to strong, ZTE access road? Zhang Xiaoji Security : The United States is a very attention to the protection of their cultural country. For example, the Christian culture is the backbone of an umbrella, other cultures around the trunk, the same as the umbrella bone unfolded. No matter how doing something unorthodox, it is inseparable from the mainstream culture. American culture is in the hands of the Americans, especially treasure of American culture, all pay attention to the protection of cultural, This can metaphor : the United States used the metaphor of a culture vessel, the American people are on board sailors, struggling in the water not dropped my boat. This is the first point. The second point that Americans have to track the spending habits of procts, so they have two characteristics : one is a universal consumption, Whether you are a child or young alts, and even the elderly, have different levels of animation consumption, for example, an elderly birthday, the movie received a lot of cards, the elderly are very pleased, and some of his relatives no matter what age, what good thing to encounter, such as birthday, wedding With what, He sent some gifts at the same time, yeah, right, and such gifts may be derived from the animation. He is also to release this gift cards to send out animation, which is a characteristic. Another feature of life animation consumption. Especially from the 0 to 12 age group, in the United States, statistical, in this age of the crowd, They average 71 toys, and some have more. I can cite an example, a young girl, especially hyperactive and not concentrate on learning. Mother leading her to see psychological doctors, psychologists say, can you draw me to your house to see, child psychologists came to the room, only one, shut the door, told her mother, Please put your child's toys to less 5%. According to the mother the doctors made, and the children are learning a lot really good. There's a reason children are toys much of the excess (approximately 400), comes to an end with this, um, how she can concentrate on their studies? This is a characteristic. The second characteristic is that in the United States, animation extension almost infiltrate into the corner of each, for example, sell drugs, Not only sell drugs, also sell small articles of daily use, these small articles of daily use, there is a considerable amount of animation procts, such as sick children. If you give him medicine at the same time, he could also proposed charges as just such as Mickey Mouse shirt. For instance, the stores sell glasses, glasses on the shelves, glasses are linked in some cartoon characters face, Reren cartoon characters are popular, and people passing through will not help more enjoyable, looking at the same time, they saw the glasses. In addition, spectacles store also placed many cartoon toys, glasses you bought at the same time, perhaps bought a playmate. In short, in the United States and merchants to provide consumers with all the consumer convenience, sometimes, you do not think of businessmen have you thought of everything. For instance, the cards seem very cheap, sometimes only 1,2 U.S. dollars, as your wife for a friend or a gift on the card write a few words, I will feel very warm, between classmates send a small gift as a gift card. According to what is said, the United States annual card sales volume reached 3 billion each year Americans spend almost 10 dollars, Therefore, the Americans animation consumption habits from the fundamental guarantee for the development track, it is a problem. Another key issue is, the United States domestic proction of animation Its basic principle is : the lower the better proction costs. and the greater efficiency is the better course. For example, when the company had the theme track design and screenplay, it may local proction in the United States, The United States may not have local proction, in Asia it can use half the cost of proction completed, he will never in their proction. Therefore, their procts are completely animation market, according to the laws of the market economy. Meanwhile, they paid great attention to protecting its cultural track, while minimizing foreign, such as Europe, Japan's invasion, I said yes to less than one is not allowed to import, but the introction of the quantity is very small. In short, they make full use of their proction animation procts. This is like one with its own seed, its own fertilizer, to hire cheap labor for them. He is the last of the harvest, said that the United States is an animated cartoon instry as a major power, it is not a coincidence. and I of the above mentioned enjoyed a close relationship, the problem is sporadic, I will discuss here. Zhang Xiao An Introction : USA, the U.S. and Asia Animation exchange organizations Principal Consultant. 1982 graated from the Beijing Film Academy (animation professional, college), in Beijing Branch shadow, Chinese television proction center, and the Central Television unit. He is the first Chinese animation instry in the television cartoon creation one of the young directors. A distinctive style, with a rich culture of color. USA, the United States and Asia as cartoon bodies Principal Adviser, perform for the Chinese animation instry to provide professional consulting services and the promotion of Sino-U.S. cooperation animation project. His cartoon "I lost," was the first in 1989 China Television Animation Honor Award; animated short film "Jiapanweidi" is the 1994 National cartoon humor pieces sweetheart Award; Karaoke animation "Grandpa Deng meters of trees" in 1998 was China's first television program karaoke outstanding design award OK OK .
這可是我自己翻譯的！！！！！

⑹ 幫忙找電影發展史的英語版本，萬分感謝

History of Motion Pictures
I INTRODUCTION

History of Motion Pictures, historical development of the visual medium known as motion pictures, film, cinema, or the movies. This article covers the medium』s history as a technology, as a business, as an art form, and as a means of delivering entertainment and information to audiences in theaters and at home. It discusses major filmmakers and their films, principal fiction and nonfiction genres, and film instries in the United States and throughout the world. For more information on the technical aspects involved in creating a film, see Motion Picture.

II ORIGINS

In the early 19th century scientists took note of a visual phenomenon: A sequence of indivial still pictures, when set in motion, can give the illusion of movement. These scientists attributed this experience to what they called persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. The eye』s retention of a visual image, now known as positive afterimage, has long been considered a founding principle of motion pictures, even though its relationship to the perception of motion is still not well understood.

A Early Experiments

The persistence of vision concept stimulated experimentation with motion-picture devices throughout the 19th century. Among the first such devices was a slotted disk with a sequence of drawings around its perimeter. When a person spun the disk in front of a mirror and looked through the slots, the drawings appeared to move. The zoetrope, a device developed in the 1830s, was a hollow drum with a strip of pictures around its inner surface. When spun, it proced the same effect. In the 1870s French inventor Émile Reynaud improved on this idea by placing mirrors at the center of the drum. A few years later he developed a projecting version, using a reflector and a lens to enlarge the moving images. In 1892 he began holding public screenings in Paris at his Théâtre Optique, with hundreds of drawings on a reel that he wound through his apparatus to construct moving images that continued for 15 minutes.

Inventors began to conceive of combining the principles of these moving-image devices with the photographic recording of actual movement soon after the development of still photography in the 1830s. The most famous experiment occurred in the 1870s in California, where railroad tycoon Leland Stanford hired British photographer Eadweard Muybridge to settle a bet on whether a galloping horse ever had all four feet off the ground. Muybridge set up 12 cameras along a racetrack and spread threads across the track with a contact to each camera』s shutter. Moving along the track, the horse broke the threads and caused a sequence of photographs to be taken. The photos showed the horse with all four feet off the ground, and Muybridge went on a lecture tour showing his photographs on a moving-image device he called the zoopraxiscope.

Muybridge』s endeavors stimulated French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey to devise equipment for recording and analyzing animal and human movement. He built what he called a chronophotographic camera that could take multiple images superimposed on one another. His work was aided in turn by developments in photographic materials. In 1885 American inventor George Eastman introced sensitized paper roll 「film」 in place of the indivial glass plates then in use. In 1889 Eastman replaced the paper roll with celluloid, a synthetic plastic material coated with a gelatin emulsion.

B Thomas Alva Edison and William K. L. Dickson

Legendary American inventor Thomas Alva Edison drew upon the work of Muybridge, Marey, and Eastman when he turned his attention to motion pictures in the late 1880s. In his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, Edison assigned to a British employee, William K. L. Dickson, the task of constructing a machine for recording actual movement on film and another machine for viewing the resulting images. By 1891 Dickson had proced a motion-picture camera, called the Kinetograph, and a viewing machine, bbed the Kinetoscope.

The Kinetograph was operated by an electric motor that moved the celluloid film roll past the camera lens. Motor-driven cameras, which were bulky and stationary, were soon replaced by movable hand-cranked cameras. Dickson』s key contribution was a sprocket mechanism linked to the camera』s shutter, which momentarily stopped the film roll for each exposure. These separate still photographic images came to be called frames. Early cameras used a number of different speeds for exposing frames, but by the advent of sound film in the late 1920s the standard had become 24 frames per second.

In early 1893 Edison constructed a motion-picture studio on his laboratory grounds, bbed the Black Maria by his staff who thought it resembled police patrol wagons known by that nickname. On May 9, 1893, he held the first public exhibition of films shot using the Kinetograph in the Black Maria. But only one person at a time could use his viewing machine, the Kinetoscope. This boxlike structure contained a motor-and-shutter mechanism similar to the camera』s. It ran a loop of positive film past an electric light source, illuminating a tiny image, which the viewer observed through a small window. Kinetoscope viewing parlors containing many machines for indivial viewing began to open in cities in 1894. Edison and Dickson apparently gave little thought to a single machine that could project moving images to a large audience, something Reynaud had achieved in his Théâtre Optique. Reynaud, however, had displayed drawings rather than images photographed by a motion-picture camera.

C The Lumière Brothers

In France, the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who ran a factory in Lyons that manufactured photographic equipment, sought to improve on Edison』s accomplishment. By 1895 they developed a lightweight, hand-held camera that used a claw mechanism to advance the film roll. They named it the Cinématographe, and they soon discovered that it could also be used to show large images on a screen, when linked with projecting equipment. Throughout 1895 they shot films and projected them for select groups. Their first screening for the general public was held in Paris in December 1895.

Elsewhere other inventors were also busy. In Germany, the brothers Emil and Max Skladanowsky devised an apparatus and projected films in Berlin in November 1895. In Britain, a machine developed by Birt Acres and Robert W. Paul was used to project films in London in January 1896. In the United States, a projector called the Vitascope was constructed around the same time by Charles Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat. Armat then entered into a commercial alliance with Edison to manufacture the Vitascope, and the device exhibited projected motion pictures in New York City in April 1896.

The Lumière brothers held a unique place among all these simultaneous efforts, since they were innovative filmmakers as well as inventors and manufacturers. The many films they made ring 1895 and 1896, though very short, are considered pivotal in the history of motion pictures. Arroseur et arrosé (Waterer and Watered, 1896), a brief comedy drawn from a newspaper cartoon, shows a gardener getting drenched with a hose as the result of a boy』s prank. La sortie de l』usine Lumière à Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory, 1895) and Arrivée d』un train en gare (Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, 1896), which shows a train coming to a station and passengers getting off, were among the so-called actuality films—films that depicted actual events rather than a story told by actors—for which the Lumières became noted.

III ONE-REELERS

During the decade following the advent of projected motion pictures, films were shown as part of vaudeville or variety programs, at carnivals and fairgrounds, in lecture halls and churches, and graally in spaces converted for the exclusive exhibition of movies. Most films ran no longer than 10 to 12 minutes, which reflected the amount of film that could be wound on a standard reel for projection (hence the term one-reelers). Many were comedies or actualities, following the Lumière brothers』 example. Their purpose was spectacle—to show something astounding, unusual, titillating, or perhaps newsworthy. But filmmakers also struck out in new directions, especially toward fantasy and narrative.

French magician and filmmaker Georges Méliès was the outstanding creator of fantasy films in early cinema. Méliès exploited the new medium to enhance his magic acts through techniques such as stop-motion photography—interrupting the camera』s action and moving or substituting people and objects—so that, for example, a woman appeared to turn into a skeleton. He created elaborate backdrops with multiple scenes and costume changes for these so-called trick films that were widely emulated by other filmmakers. Of the hundreds of works he made between 1896 and 1912, perhaps the best-known is Le voyage dans la lune (A Trip to the Moon, 1902), which in one scene features the animated human face of the moon being struck in the eye by a rocket.

In the United States, a former projectionist and traveling exhibitor, Edwin S. Porter, took charge of motion-picture proction at Edison』s company in 1901 and began making longer films that told a story. As with Méliès』s films, these required multiple shots that could be edited into a narrative sequence. Porter』s most notable film—and the most famous work of early cinema—was The Great Train Robbery (1903), which is credited with establishing movies as a commercial entertainment medium. With its rapid shifts of location, including action on a moving train, this film offered spectators a breadth and immediacy of vision that became hallmarks of the cinema experience.

Spurred by The Great Train Robbery and subsequent story films, film exhibition greatly expanded in the United States around 1905. One phenomenon was the proliferation of nickelodeon theaters, converted storefronts in instrial cities that charged 5 cents for admission and attracted working-class audiences. Demand from these theaters increased the volume of film proction and the profits for procers, but it also brought forth criticism from reformers concerning unsanitary or unsafe conditions in theaters and immoral subject matter in films. In 1908 Edison took the lead in establishing the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), a consortium of procers with common goals: controlling proction and distribution so as to eliminate cheap theaters, raising admission prices, cooperating with censorship bodies, and preventing film stock from getting into the hands of nonmember procers. However, the independent procers excluded from the MPPC continued to obtain materials and make the most popular films. They also led the way toward multireel, feature-length films. By 1915 the MPPC was under attack by the U.S. government as an illegal monopoly (although an ineffectual one), and the independents were combining into the companies that would dominate American filmmaking for decades to come.

IV SILENT MOVIES

With a few experimental exceptions, motion pictures from their earliest days until the late 1920s lacked synchronous sound (sound that matches the action). But silent movies were rarely silent. Early films almost always were projected with piano or organ accompaniment, and sometimes also with a narrator or live actors behind the screen. As feature-length films (four reels, with a running time of 40 to 50 minutes or more) became the norm in the 1910s, live orchestras began to play in larger theaters, frequently using music written specifically for the film.

Until World War I (1914-1918) European filmmakers dominated the world film market. France was considered the leading film-procing country, though Italy, Denmark, and other countries also played a significant role. However, the war, fought on European soil, disrupted commercial filmmaking there. With a sudden drop in European film exports, some regions, such as Latin America, experienced a brief surge in film proction. But U.S. companies soon took over markets overseas, using the same tactics of high-volume proction and lower prices that the Europeans had. By the 1920s some three-quarters of films screened around the world came from the United States.

A American Silent Movies

Even before the war, the United States had made its mark on the world filmmaking scene with epics and comedies. Moreover, U.S. moviemakers had begun to congregate in southern California in the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood (see The Move to Hollywood, below), creating a film community apart from older urban centers of politics and the arts, and a magical new symbol for popular entertainment and glamour.

A1 D. W. Griffith

The work of D. W. Griffith exemplifies the transformation of motion pictures from the early days of one-reelers to an era of Hollywood』s worldwide dominance. Starting out as an actor in films directed by Edwin S. Porter, Griffith in 1908 became a director at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York City. He was initially responsible for turning out two one-reel films a week, and between 1908 and 1913 he directed nearly 500 films. Amidst this breakneck schele, he and his co-workers developed many of the cinema』s basic storytelling conventions: moving the camera close to the action, using many separate shots, and editing the shots to cut back and forth among different actions. All these techniques served to shape a narrative, rather than present a spectacle as earlier films had tended to do. Griffith also nurtured performers such as Mary Pickford and Lillian Gish and emphasized an intimate, restrained style of acting suitable for camera close-ups.

Leaving Biograph in 1913 to make full-length features, Griffith planned a historical epic of the American Civil War (1861-1865). The Birth of a Nation (1915), three hours in length, stunned audiences with its dazzling spectacle of a still-recent event and established motion pictures as an art form for cultured spectators. Yet the film』s racist presumptions—specifically, its defense of white supremacy to protect racial purity—was controversial in its own time and remains repugnant decades later. Griffith made another epic, Intolerance (1916), which intertwined four stories about victims of prejudice, and continued to work as an independent filmmaker into the 1920s. Eventually, financial pressures forced him to become a director at a Hollywood studio, and he made his last film in 1931.

字數限制，沒辦法全發給你，如需要請留言。

⑺ 高分跪求美國科幻電影發展史英文介紹！急！急！只要回答出來懸賞好說！！

As one can conclude from the term science-fiction movie, these films have a background of an advanced, fictional technology that is normally set in the future. Most of these movies have in common that they expose their own vision of the future, with new technologies commonly being the most noticeable change in these hypothetical worlds. Besides visions about all kinds of scientific areas, the given context of this work concentrates particularly on computer interfaces.

As a part of the seminar "Intelligent Spaces" approaches of mainstream science fiction motion pictures are extracted and analysed regarding their references in real-life human computer interaction (HCI) designs. Similarities to ongoing researches will be outlined - especially to those, which are presented by other talks of this seminar that have already taken place. To be able to draw comparisons to reality it is often necessary to view the ideas and visions of a movie on a relatively abstract level.
At first some key factors that determine or influence the design of HCI in movies will be discussed. Starting from this viewpoint numerous examples from selected movies will be observed. Due to the limitation of the material that was at hand, we cannot claim to provide a complete overview of all movies, but the available selection should suffice and allow a representative inspection of the movie scene.
We will start with a review of movies that do not show any concepts at all or merely adapt common everyday techniques of that time. The second and main part introces visionary interaction design, divided into different areas of interaction technologies, followed by a brief view at a couple of satiric movie scenes and the conclusions of this work in the end.

⑻ 簡述電影的起源和發展

起源

1872年的一天，在美國加利福尼亞州一個酒店裡，斯坦福與科恩發生了激烈的爭執：馬奔跑時蹄子是否都著地？斯坦福認為奔跑的馬在躍起的瞬間四蹄是騰空的；科恩卻認為，馬奔跑時始終有一蹄著地。

爭執的結果誰也說服不了誰，於是就採取了美國人慣用的方式打賭來解決。他們請來一位馴馬好手來做裁決，然而，這位裁判員也難以斷定誰是誰非。這很正常，因為單憑人的眼睛確實難以看清快速奔跑的馬蹄是如何運動的。

裁判的好友——英國攝影師愛德華·麥布里奇（Edward Muybridge）知道了這件事後，表示可由他來試一試。他在跑道的一邊安置了24架照相機，排成一行，相機鏡頭都對准跑道。在跑道的另一邊，他打了24個木樁，每根木樁上都繫上一根細繩，這些細繩橫穿跑道，分別繫到對面每架照相機快門上。

一切准備就緒後，麥布里奇牽來了一匹漂亮的駿馬，讓它從跑道一端飛奔到另一端。當跑馬經過這一區域時，依次把24極引線絆斷，24架照相機的快門也就依次被拉動而拍下了24張照片。麥布里奇把這些照片按先後順序剪接起來。

每相鄰的兩張照片動作差別很小，它們組成了一條連貫的照片帶。裁判根據這組照片，終於看出馬在奔跑時，所有蹄子都騰空。按理說，故事到此就應結束了，但這場打賭及其判定的奇特方法卻引起了人們很大的興趣。麥布里奇一次又一次地向人們出示那條錄有奔馬形象的照片帶。

一次，有人無意識地快速牽動那條照片帶，結果眼前出現了一幕奇異的景象：各張照片中那些靜止的馬疊成一匹運動的馬，它竟然「活」起來了！

發展

1888年10月，法國電影發明家路易斯·普林斯（路易斯·艾梅·奧古斯汀·雷·普林斯Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince）在英格蘭西約克郡利茲城進行了一項有里程碑意義的工作。

他使用自己的單鏡頭攝影機和伊士曼柯達公司的紙質膠片接連拍攝了《朗德海花園場景》（Roundhay Garden Scene）和一段利茲大橋的街景。

這比他的競爭者——比如盧米埃爾兄弟和托馬斯·愛迪生——要早上幾年。他未能在美國按計劃完成這項新發明的公開演示，因為他於1890年9月16日在一輛火車上神秘地失蹤了。

美國及歐洲的早期電影史是以攝影機專利權之爭為標志的。1888年普林斯的一種有16個鏡頭的設備在美國被授予雙專利，它是由一個電影攝影機和一個投影器組合而成的。

他的另一發明——一種單鏡頭攝影機（即MkI）在美國卻被拒絕授予專利，因為已有同類產品持有專利。不過，幾年後美國人托馬斯·愛迪生申請同類產品專利時卻沒有被拒絕。

1888年10月14日，使用改進版的單鏡頭攝影機（即MkII）拍攝了電影《朗德海花園場景》。他在利茲的漢斯萊特區（Hunslet）的惠特利工廠以及惠特利位於朗德海的家——奧克伍德農庄（Oakwood Grange）展出了他這第一部電影。

但他們沒有在更廣的范圍里傳播這一電影。他在1887年至1888年同時拍攝了電影《利茲大橋》《繞過牆角者》《拉手風琴者》，每部電影的片長為2秒左右。

接下來的幾年，為了使自己和家人移民到紐約去，並進一步進行研究，他取得法國-美國雙重國籍。1890年9月，他計劃到紐約的聚美大樓舉辦公開展覽，然而他本人卻神秘地消失了。因此，普林斯對攝影機的誕生所作的貢獻常被人忽視。

(8)英美電影發展史英文擴展閱讀

電影是19世紀美國國家生活水平上升大眾產生新需求的娛樂產物。

電影根據視覺暫留原理，運用照相（以及錄音）手段把外界事物的影像（以及聲音）攝錄在膠片上，通過放映（同時還原聲音），用電的方式將活動影像投射到銀幕上（以及同步聲音）以表現一定內容的現代技術。

電影是一種視覺及聽覺藝術，利用膠卷、錄像帶或數位媒體將影像和聲音捕捉，再加上後期的編輯工作而成。

電影是一種綜合的現代藝術，亦正如藝術本身，有著復雜而繁多的科系。電影有很多類型，也有多種分類方法。

電影從有聲電影開始發展，目前已經到了電影的特技時代了。運用大量的電腦特技製作出來的電影，受廣大中年以下的朋友歡迎。

國外電影廣告在美國和英國的電影廣告中，有這樣八種標記：

（1）美國X——禁止未成年者觀看的影片，G——所有觀眾可看片，R——十七歲以下禁止觀看，PG——一般觀眾可看。

（2）英國U——內容正派片，A——一般觀眾可看片，X——18歲以下青少年禁看片，AA——少年兒童禁看的兇殺片。

電影其實就是被人稱之為藝術而迂迴戲話的一幕聯想而已。

1911年義大利詩人和電影先驅者喬托·卡努杜發表了一篇名為《第七藝術宣言》的論著，他在世界電影史上第一次宣稱電影是一種表演藝術，從此，「第七藝術」就成為了電影藝術的同義詞。

現如今有3D電影，是視覺的「長寬高」；美國拍攝電影有5D拍攝技術。

其中電影最高的獎項為「美國電影奧斯卡金像獎、法國戛納國際電影節金棕櫚獎、威尼斯國際電影節金獅獎、德國柏林國際電影節金熊獎」。

⑼ 英國的電影的發展史

英國人參與了電影的發明，1889年，W.多尼索爾普在英國製造了攝影機和轉動架，拍攝特拉法爾加廣場全景；1895年，B.艾克里斯發明了「動力燈」，拍攝了埃普瑟姆地方的賽馬、牛津和劍橋兩校劃艇比賽、基爾運河通航典禮。這是世界上最早的新聞紀錄片，但當時沒有放映機，沒能及時映出。R.W.保羅1896年 3月26日在奧林比亞大廳里為觀眾作了電影的首次商業性映出，上映的節目是他自己拍攝的《多佛海的狂浪》。後來，保羅攝制了許多喜劇短片，其中有《大兵求愛記》，可放映一分鍾。保羅在索思蓋特還建造了製片車間。配備了特技效果的設施.
對英國早期電影最有影響的是布賴頓的幾位攝影師。其中有E.柯林斯、A.G.史密斯、J.威廉森等，這幾位電影先驅，後來被人稱為布賴頓學派。他們最早採用了兩次曝光、移動攝影、迭印、全景、倒拍、停拍等技巧。柯林斯拍過30部影片，其中只有一部《中斷的旋律》保存下來。史密斯在《祖母的放大鏡》（1900）中採用特大特寫鏡頭，銀幕上出現了放大的走動的表、籠中的金絲雀、人的眼睛；他的第一部作品《夜晚》，表現警察提著燈巡夜，沿路照亮了乞丐、醉漢、行竊的小偷，他用攝影機代替人的眼睛，把它變成了活的東西，這種新的手法，可以說是現代蒙太奇的開端。威廉森則在新聞片中自由地交替變換事件地點並採用外景等，他的《士兵的歸來》和《戰前和戰後的後備兵》兩部影片，描繪了真實生活片斷，在銀幕上首次提出社會問題。
當時的電影藝術家和技術革新家還有C.赫普沃思。1897年，他撰寫的《活動攝影術——或電影攝影入門》，是世界上最早電影論著之一。他曾改進沖洗影片器具、印片機和膠片打孔機。1898年他拍攝了《鐵路切斷中的快車》；接著拍攝的《艾麗斯漫遊奇境記》（1903），長800英尺，分16場景，場景間交融銜接；另一部《浪子救人》（1905）利用攝影機述說故事，結構復雜，採取了分鏡頭劇本的串聯、剪輯、搖拍、低角度攝影等技巧；1907年，他還設計過錄音系統。同一時期攝制故事片的還有F.S.莫特肖。他的 《搶劫郵車》、《白晝行劫》（兩部影片均攝於1903年）奠定了驚險片在英國的地位。
早期英國電影除紀錄像片和故事片外，還出現了風景片，如G.潘廷格的《羅伯特•斯科特漫遊南極》（1913），頗受歡迎。1914年，英國電影工作者製作了第一部動畫片。G.皮爾遜導演的《血字的研究》是根據小說《福爾摩斯探案》中的故事拍攝的第一部偵探片；他的另一部影片《厄爾塔斯——死裡逃生的人》（1916），則仿照法國影片《芳托馬斯》樣式，是第一套動作驚險連續片集。
20年代，赫普沃思因拍攝了《阿爾夫的紐扣》（1920）和其它幾部成功作品而名振一時。皮爾遜製作了《一切都不在乎》（1920）、《爆竹》（1921）、《愛情生活和笑聲》（1923）以及《起床號聲》（1924）。英國無聲影片時代最受歡迎的明星B.鮑爾芾就是他培育出來的。另一部受觀眾歡迎的影片是H.肖的《基普斯》（1921），但是，最為傑出而商業上最成功的作品要推G.卡茨的《女人對女人》（1923），它的成功，是製片人M.巴爾康、導演V.薩維爾、劇作家卡茨和他的助手希區柯克，A.以及當時為大家喜愛的好萊塢女明星B.康普遜合作的結果。希區柯克在20年代後期在蓋恩斯巴勒影片公司因執導《快樂的花園》（1925）和《房客》（1926）兩片而成名。這家公司的成功產品還有卡茨的《老鼠》（1925）、A.布魯內爾的《英國老家》（1927）和《永恆的仙女》（1928）。與此同時，也崛起了另外幾位新人：導演兼製片人H.威爾科克斯繼成名作《朱金洲》（1923）之後導演了影片《十夜談》（1924）、《唯一道路》（1925）、《涅爾`格溫》（1926）和《黎明》（1928）；L.戴•科多瓦導演了《她》（1925）；M.埃爾維導演了《阿爾芒蒂埃爾來的小姐》（1926）與《海軍將帥的副官》（1926）。
隨著電影製片事業的發展，英國的電影放映場所逐步脫離游藝場而建起可容幾百觀眾的影戲院，當時還僱用鋼琴師和小樂隊在放映電影時進行伴奏。不久，一批大影院開辦起來，但是自1909年起，美、法兩國影片佔領英國市場，本國影片只佔全國上映總數的15％，因此，英國既不能從國內電影市場收回大量資金，又沒有充足財力投入製作優質影片、同外國影片爭奪國內外市場。第一次世界大戰爆發後，英國電影生產更受影響。從1916年起，英國加征娛樂稅，對影院營業更為不利，電影事業進一步遭到危機。大戰結束後，美國影片源源而來，使英國影片只佔在本國上映影片的5％，出口影片更是屈指可數，因此一些著名製片人如赫普沃思也不得不於1924年關閉製片廠。為保護民族電影，政府當局於1927年正式通過了電影法案，規定限額分配比率，要求1935年須達到總數的20％，使英國影片在全國影院的上映比率逐年提高。此時，新的製片廠如戈蒙特公司、英國國際影片公司和英獅公司先後成立。到20年代末，英國又攝制出一批引人注目的影片，如希區柯克的《決斗場》（1928）、阿斯奎斯，A.的《流星》（1928）和《地下》（1928）、E.A.杜邦的《皮卡迪利大街》（1929）。因為定額分配影院上映率，需要大量影片填補空檔，刺激英國電影出現了一番興旺景象。但是好影片要耗費大量財力和時間，為了供應市場緊缺的需要，出廠的產品仍然是大批質量差、省工省時的平庸影片。
1929年，有聲影片問世。英國面臨的問題同其它各國大致相同，如錄音方法簡陋，設備笨重，影片內容從頭到尾，不是喋喋不休的對白，就是接二連三的歌曲。希區柯克導演的《訛詐》，拍了一半而改為有聲影片，他在運用聲音效果方面，匠心獨運，這部被公認的英國第一部有聲片，對其他導演很有啟發。此後拍攝出了一批較成功的有聲片，包括：希區柯克的《謀殺》（1930），阿斯奎斯的《逃出達特穆爾》（1930）、《正告英格蘭》（1931）和《跳舞吧，美麗的女郎》（1931），薩維爾的《W——計劃》（1931）和《辦公室的少女》（1932），W.福特的《羅馬快車》（1932），威爾科克斯的《神奇之夜》（1932）等。
30年代，英國電影出現了短期的繁榮景象，每年影片生產量為150部到200部，故事片的復興同出身於匈牙利的製片家柯達，A.大有關系，他於1933年定居英國，創辦倫敦電影製片廠以後，攝制了一批成功的影片，其中以《亨利八世的私生活》（即《英宮艷史》，1933）為最。他用新的觀點處理歷史題材，提出社會出路問題，迎合觀眾的民主思想，取得很大成功，該片在國外享受的盛譽，遠遠超過英國其它影片。更為重要的是柯達孜孜不倦、勤奮進取的精神，促使所有電影業的工作人員努力提高專業水平。他為英國影片開拓了向國外輸出的廣闊前景，又給電影事業灌輸了樂觀與奮發的風氣。他的公司還在世界各國收羅人才，禮聘他們來英國工作，推進了英國電影事業的發展。如德國導演P.津納執導的《凱瑟琳女皇》（1934）、美國明星范朋克，D.主演的《唐璜》（1934）、法國導演克萊爾，R.拍攝的《鬼魂西行》（1935）、美國導演兼美工設計家W.C.孟席斯所拍的《未來世界》（1936），都是引人矚目的影片。這家公司製作的影片如Z.柯達導演的《河上刺兒頭》（1935）、《伏象神童》（1937）以及柯達本人拍的《倫勃朗傳》（即《畫聖情痴》，1936）等，都是成功之作。
這時期英國的其它製片人和導演紛紛緊步柯達後塵，由M.巴爾康監制、希區柯克導演的影片《萬事通》（1934）、《三十九級台階》（即《國防大秘密》，1935）和《破壞》（即《薄命花》，1937）都極為成功。此外，薩維爾的《好夥伴》（1933）、《長青樹》（1934）和《鐵公爵》（1935），威爾科克斯的《涅爾•格溫》（1934）、《老德魯里的假腿》（1935）和《維多利亞女皇》（1937），L.門德茲的《猶太人蘇斯》（1934），T.本特利的《老古玩店》（1935），R.史蒂文森的《都鐸•羅斯》（1936），B.維爾特爾的《羅得島》（1936），均獲較高評價。到1937年，英國故事影片產量達到了200多部。但好景不長，大多數製片人不講求質量，拍攝的影片沒有票房價值，加之多數資金來自借貸，年終結算，很少獲利。到1938年，生產驟然下降，英國議會為挽救這個局面，在這年又通過新電影法案，規定提高英國影片在國內上映的分配定額，從1938年的12.5％，逐年增高至1947年的25％；抵制濫拍成本低、質量差的影片；允許外國資金向英國電影事業投資。根據這個條款，美國米高梅公司和20世紀福斯電影公司都投放了它們的資金，在英國開辦了幾家聯合製片廠拍片，如米高梅公司投資的《一個美國佬在牛津》（即《留英外史》，1938）、《城堡》（即《衛城記》，1938）和《再見，奇普斯先生》（即《萬世師表》，1939），福斯公司投資的彩色片《晨之翼》（1937）等。這些影片全都由好萊塢導演執導、好萊塢明星主演，英國方面只提供場地、攝影器械、技術人員和個別演員。英國電影導演這期間也拍出了幾部成功的影片，如阿斯奎斯的《賣花女》（1938）、希區柯克的《失蹤的女人》（即《瓊花劫》，1938）、里德，C.的《銀行休假日》（1938）和《群星普照》（1939）、Z.柯達的《四羽毛》（1939）等。
這幾年，英國電影事業也實行了明星制度，相繼登上明星寶座的是：霍華德，L.、勞頓，C.、G.菲爾茲、唐納，R.、M.奧勃朗、M.洛克伍德、費雯麗、哈里森，R.、奧立弗，L.等。
1929年格里爾遜在英帝國交易局電影部資助下，導演了一部紀錄片《飄網漁船》，反映北海捕撈鯡魚漁民的生活，富有詩情畫意，使他成為英國紀錄片運動的創始人。他主張電影藝術的目的在於社會教育，並認為蘇聯電影是表現電影社會功能的實際事例。他從工商企業得到經濟上的資助，並吸收有志於現實主義影片的藝術工作者參與這個運動。格里爾遜紀錄電影學派的人員中有P.羅塔、B.賴特、E.恩斯特、A.埃爾頓、H.沃特、D.泰勒、S.萊格、A.卡瓦爾康蒂等，他們的作品反映英國社會出現的尖銳問題，如失業、勞動條件差、居住環境惡劣等，在藝術處理上也有新的追求。
第二次世界大戰爆發後，英國電影業無法正常生產，大部分電影界人才被征入伍，故事片生產從1940年的108部下降到1942年的46部。但觀眾反而有增無已，影片的票房收入直線上升。第二次大戰期間，英國郵政總局的電影機構被新聞部合並，成為皇家電影機構，給了紀錄像片工作者施展才乾的良機，他們拍出了一批優秀的紀錄片，如卡瓦爾康蒂的《最初的日子》（1939）、H.詹寧斯和H.瓦特的《倫敦必勝》（1940）、瓦特的《今晚的目標》（1941）、J.福爾莫斯的《海岸司令部》（1942）、詹寧斯的《火已點燃》（1942），R.博爾廷的《沙漠大捷》、P.傑克遜的《西方進軍》（1944），還有英、美合拍，由里德，C.和美國人G.卡寧合導的《真正的光榮》（1945）。這些紀錄片在戰時所起的作用很大。另外還有些故事片也有很大紀實或宣傳的性質，如P.赫斯特和布魯內爾 3人合導的《雄獅添翼》（1939）、鮑威爾，M.的《第49°緯線》（即《侵略者》，1941）、N.科沃德和利恩，D.合導的《我們所在的隊伍》（即《海神》，1942）、迪金森的《近親》（1942）等。其它有關大戰題材的故事片還有里德的《鐵血忠魂》（1944）、鮑威爾的《壯士春夢》（1943）等。與此同時，也拍有不少其它題材的影片。較突出的有柯達的《巴格達竊賊》（1940）、迪克森的《煤氣燈》（1940）和《首相》（1941）、B.迪安的《二十一天》（1940）、帕斯卡爾的《巴巴拉少校》（1941）、里德的《基普斯》（1941）、L.阿利斯的《穿灰衣服的人》（1943）、奧立弗，L.的《亨利五世》（1944）、吉列特的《臭名昭著的紳士》（1945）和《深夜》（即《新聊齋志異》，1945），還有豪華歷史劇《愷撒和克列奧帕特拉》（又譯為《璇宮艷後》，1945）、N.科沃德和利恩，D.合作的《相見恨晚》（1945）等。
J.A.蘭克是在第二次世界大戰時期崛起的英國電影事業家。早在30年代，他開始從事宗教電影的攝制工作。1935年，創辦英國全國電影公司，攝制了第一部商業性電影，同年他與C.M.伍爾夫合辦電影發行總公司。1941年蘭克已掌握有英國 3大電影放映網中的兩大放映網。大戰結束時，他的總公司擴展成了勢力雄厚的聯合企業，擁有英國的製片、發行和放映事業的大部分實權。他雄心勃勃，計劃建立巨資故事片廠，包括兒童片、動畫片部門，攝制新聞紀錄連集片，開辦電影學校，專門培養有希望的童星。他想用巨資大片打進美國市場，把英國電影事業從多年困境之中拯救出來，1947年，他去美國談判推銷他的影片。不料英國政府卻在這時頒布法令，要徵收國外進口影片75％的稅收，美國各家製片公司堅決抵制，好萊塢影片全部停止輸往英國，使各地影院減少了大量片源。蘭克想在美國打開市場的計劃也成為泡影，英國電影界陷入了極為困難的境地。英國政府於是敦促蘭克和其它製片人增產影片以填補空缺。但是英國電影業經濟拮據，影片能收回成本的也為數不多。1948年，英國政府只得撤銷外國影片的進口稅，美國影片又立刻大量涌進，英國影片在本土銀幕上仍無容身之地。英國政府再度規定：美國影片從英國所得利潤必須將其中的一定數額向英國電影事業投資，這種辦法又讓美國電影勢力進一步深入英國電影事業。此時期，蘭克影片公司和別的製片廠比較優秀的作品有：利恩根據狄更斯小說拍攝的《錦綉前程》（即《孤星血淚》，1948）和《霧都孤兒》（1948），鮑威爾和普雷斯伯格的《上天階梯》（即《太虛幻境》，1946）、《黑水仙花》（又譯為《思凡》，1947）和《紅菱艷》（1948），奧立弗自導、自演的《王子復仇記》（1948），里德導演的《虎膽忠魂》（1947）、《倒下的偶像》（1948）和《第三個人》（1949），還有迪金森的《黑桃皇後》（1949）等。
為了維持和保護本國電影事業，英國政府只得仍舊採用上映定額分配辦法，規定從1950年起，分配英國影片上映的定額要增加到30％，可惜當時娛樂捐稅仍保持戰時標准，電影事業所得實惠甚微。英國政府乃於1949年成立國家電影籌資公司，通過該公司將錢借給電影事業；接著1950年又創立英國電影生產基金會，專門支配從電影票上徵收的捐稅，作為補助電影生產。不過，這時候電視越來越受群眾歡迎，電影院的上座率開始以驚人的速度下降。
從50年代起，英國出現了由巴爾康主持的「伊靈喜劇影片」。伊靈是製片廠名，位於倫敦西郊。伊靈喜劇表現實際生活，敢於打破常規，描繪反對官僚主義的人物的各種遭遇，以新眼光觀察生活，溫和地批判貴族階層和人情風俗的繁文縟節。最成功的作品當推哈默的《善人與貴族》（1949），麥肯德里克的《清潔的小島》（1949）、《白衣男子》（1952）和《專門勾引女人的人》（1955）。其它值得提到的有C.克萊頓的《大叫大嚷》（1947）、《拉旺德山暴亂》（1951），H.科尼利厄斯的《史姆利科的護照》（1949）、《日內瓦的婦人》（1953）以及M.江普的《天堂的笑聲》（1950）等。
英國政府限定了美國影片所得利潤的高額百分比要投資在英國事業以後，美國公司開始恢復營業，與英國合作拍片。這一階段英美合拍的較佳作品有J.尼格列斯科的《流浪兒》（1950）、R.沃爾什的《霍恩布洛上尉》（1951）、休斯登，J.的《非洲皇後號》（1952）和《莫比•迪克》（1956），而最傑出的作品則是利恩的《桂河大橋》（1957）。這是一部當時上座率最高的戰爭片。
美國的部分電影工作者由於遭受麥卡錫主義的迫害，紛紛離開好萊塢。導演J.洛西到倫敦定居後，接踵而來的又有卓別林，C.、R.萊斯特、庫布里克、呂美特等。這些人為英國電影藝術作出了貢獻。
英國電影事業多年以來得不到振興，1959年，一夥年輕人以林賽•安德森、托尼•理查德森、卡雷爾•賴茲為首發表宣言並攝制了一系列影片，倡導自由電影運動，這次運動和反對文學與戲劇中傳統價值觀有聯系，也與「憤怒的年輕人」運動的政治和精神抗議相結合。它的基本內容是要求用積極態度來表現藝術工作者的社會責任感，反對資產階級的唯美主義。他們鮮明地反對資本主義的社會現實和道德價值觀，如J.克萊頓的《屋頂閣樓間》（即《金屋淚》，1958），理查德森的《憤怒的回顧》（1959）、《蜜味》（1961）和《長跑家的孤寂》（1963），賴茲的《星期六晚上和星期日早晨》（1960），安德森的《這種運動生活》（1963）。此外重要的影片還有施萊辛格，J.的《戀愛有術》（1962）和《騙子比利》（1963）等。到60年代中，自由電影的調子有所變化，把反抗僅作為個人對待生活態度的一種表現方法而不再具有社會性含義。這種傾向在理查德森的影片《湯姆•瓊斯》（1963）中表現得最為鮮明。60年代末70年代初，自由電影比較重要的作品是安德森的影片《假如》（1968）和《哦，幸運兒》（1973）。在這兩部影片里導演在表現當代社會沖突時把敏銳的觀察和獨創的概括巧妙地結合在一起，在思想上和藝術上都達到了新的高度。
60年代英國利用美國的資金拍了不少影片，其中比較重要的有J.李•湯普遜的《納瓦隆的大炮》（1961）、利恩的《阿拉伯的勞倫斯》（1962）、T.揚的《烏有博士》（1962）、P.格倫維爾的《繩環》（1964）。其它英國名片有G.格林的《憤怒的沉默》（1960）、卡迪夫，J.的《兒子和情人》（1960）、克萊頓的《無罪的人》（1961）、B.福布斯的《一個雨天下午的集會》（1964）和《L形的房間》（1962）、施萊辛格的《親愛的》（1965）和《遠離狂亂的人群》（1967）、L.吉爾伯特的《阿爾菲》（1966）等。
英國國會在70年代又通過一個新電影法案，把本國影片在影院的分配定額提高到30％。增加了電影籌資公司的預算，因為美國投向英國電影事業的資金數額逐漸減少，以至完全停止了。隨著電視越來越普遍，影院上座率不斷降低，盡管提高票價，1976年也落到票房收入的歷史最低點，同年，英國訂立一條稅法，規定外僑影片製作者在全世界范圍收入的75％要交納所得稅，從而阻塞了國外投資。這一年，英國故事片生產降到64部；1977年又降到42部。
70年代上半期英國的重要影片（其中有些是美國導演的作品）有利恩的《瑞安的女兒》（1970）、C.邁爾斯的《處女與吉普賽人》（1970）、R.波蘭斯基的《麥克佩斯》（1971）、J.洛西的《送信人》（1971）、阿頓波羅，R.的《青年時代的丘吉爾》（1972）、 M.弗蘭克的《階級烙印》（1973）、庫布里克的《巴萊•林登》（1975）、拉塞爾的《湯米》（1975）、庫珀的《太上皇》（1975）等。
70年代後期，英國製片業在美國資本牽制下，松木和愛爾斯垂兩大製片廠雖也自己投資拍片，主要還是出租場地去同美國合作。美國著名連集賣座片《超人》、《星球大戰》等是在這兩個製片廠的攝影棚里拍的，還有一部分英國電影創作人員去外國拍片。
進入80年代，英國電影事業有所好轉，1981年的《火的戰車》和1982年的《甘地》兩片連續獲得奧斯卡最佳影片獎。《教育麗塔》（1983）、《當地英雄》（1983）、《印度之行》（1984）等片也獲得好評，1986年，艾非里的《一間可以看見風景的房間》和喬菲的《使命》更獲得廣泛的國際聲譽。
這期間英國影片市場仍然被美國電影所壟斷，在全部票房收入中，英國影片僅佔10％左右，許多影片在國內的收入僅能收回投資的10～40％。
英國的大電影製片廠有「松木」、「愛爾斯垂」、「金波頓」和「圖克南」。主要電影教育機構有倫敦電影學校、民族電影學校，皇家藝術學院、倫敦電視電影學院。主要電影研究機構為英國電影學院（BFI）（建於1933年）。倫敦國際電影節是世界著名電影節，每4年舉辦一次，為非競賽性的。主要電影出版物有《畫面與音響》（1932年創刊）和《銀幕》（1959年創刊）。